Commedia dell’arte

Commedia dell’arte. A vibrant theatrical tradition, that celebrates wit, physicality and the timeless art of improvisation. Literally translated as ”comedy of the profession” it was an early form of professional theatre.

First performed outdoors mostly in town squares, productions moved into aristocratic circles and royal courts; then into the world of public theatre and opera. It has possible origins in classical Greek and Roman theatre, but was popularised in Italy from the mid 16th century and spread throughout Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Commedia was characterised by improvised dialogue, with actors initially performing mostly unscripted; relying on their wit and creativity. The characters wore distinctive masks and costumes, making them instantly recognisable and fostering audience participation.

Performances were lively and physical, with slapstick humour, acrobatics and wordplay being common. Plots based on stock situations, featured recurring scenarios; such as mistaken identities, love triangles and hidden secrets.

Its influence was widespread across European theatre and opera and its legacy lives on world-wide; in contemporary comedy and character archetypes, both on stage and in television.

Introduction

History

Costumes and masks

Conventional plot lines

Influence in visual art

Influence in performance art

Links (internal-external

Introduction

Commedia dell’arte, literally translated as ”comedy of the profession” was an early form of professional theatre, originating from Italy; that was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. Formerly called Italian comedy in English, it is also known as “Commedia alla maschera”, “commedia improvviso”, and “commedia dell’arte all’improvviso”.

It was characterised by various masked “types” and improvised performances based on sketches or scenarios. Commedia, initially, was only partly scripted (characters entrances and exits) and improvised. Actors often played the same roles, which allowed them to interact with such spontaneity.

A special characteristic of commedia was the “lazzo” (a joke, or something foolish or witty); usually a well-known routine to the performers. Another aspect of commedia was pantomime; mostly used by the character “Arlecchino” and now better known as “Harlequin”.

Anonymous painting from the French School: “Commedia dell’Arte: Italian and French comedians playing in farces”
oil on canvas (ca 1670) – actor on the far left is Moliere.

The characters of the commedia, usually represent fixed social types and stock characters, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false bravado. The characters were exaggerated “real characters”, such as Il Dottore (know-it-all doctor) , “Pantalone” (a greedy old man), or “innamorati”, (upper-class but naive lovers, in a perfect relationship). Commedia was often performed outside on platforms (and even a cart); in popular areas such as a town square.

Pre-classical and classical traditions of mime and farce, likely contributed to its emergence in 16th-century Italy. Professional troupes had formed, recruiting strolling players, acrobats, street entertainers, and even educated adventurers. These troupes experimented with forms suited to popular taste: vernacular dialects, abundant comic action and recognisable characters; derived from regional or stock fictional types.

Certain troupes formed, such as “I Gelosi”, “Confidenti”, “Desioi” and “Fedeli”; that eventually found great favour, performing in aristocratic circles and royal courts.

However, there is no doubt that its emergence and growth in popularity in Italy, was related to Carnival in Venice; which was celebrated between Epiphany and Ash Wednesday. By 1570, the author and actor Andrea Calmo, had created the character of “Il Magnifico”, the precursor to the “vecchio” (old man). The character persisted and was interchangeable with Pantalone; into the 17th century.

Calmo’s characters (which also included the Spanish or mercenary “Il Capitano” and also “Il Dottore” figure; were not originally masked. It is uncertain at what point in time during Carnival, that the characters donned their masks.

In Northern Italy commedia was centred in Florence, Mantua and Venice; where the major companies came under the protection of the various dukes. At the same time, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure “Pulcinella”, who had been long associated with Naples. The character later devolved into various types elsewhere; most famously as the puppet character “Punch”, of Punch and Judy fame in England.

Commedia dell’arte – History

There is no doubt that commedia dell’arte, flourished in the Italian theatre during the Mannerist period of around 1520-1590 (between the High Renaissance and the start of the Baroque period). However, despite the fact that there has been a long-standing tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity; certainty of origin, has not as yet been fully established.

The Atellan Farces of the early Roman republic, were short theatrical productions (possibly15-28 mins); featuring crude “character types”, wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features and an improvised plot. Some research suggests that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus (and/or Buccus) and Manducus, are the earliest versions of the commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and Il Capitano.
Some experts, date the origins to the period of the Roman middle Republic. “Fabula palliata” were a genre of Roman drama, that consisted largely of their own interpretations of Greek plays, in the comedy rather than the tragic style. The name palliata comes from pallium, the Latin word for a Greek-style cloak. It is possible that the term fabula palliata, indicates that the actors who performed wore such cloaks, or that the fabula itself is metaphorically “cloaked” in a Greek style. As in all Roman drama, the actors wore masks, that easily identified which of the stock characters they represented.

Note. The Roman Republic epitomised classical Roman civilization, transforming from a monarchy to a republic and ultimately laying the groundwork for the mighty Roman Empire. The early Early Roman Republic dates from (509–264 BCE) and the Middle Roman Republic (264–27 BCE)

More recent accounts established links to the medieval “jongleurs”, and prototypes from medieval moralities, such as “Hellequin” (the source of Harlequin).

The first recorded “commedia dell’arte” performances, came from Rome, as early as 1551. Commedia dell’arte, was performed outdoors in temporary venues, by professional actors who were costumed and masked.

Another form, “commedia erudita”, which were written comedies; were presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors.

Jan Miel (1599–1663). “Actors from the Commedia dell’Arte on a Wagon in a Town Square“.

Formation of professional troupes. By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce. The first group to form a company in Milan was “I Gelosi” (lit. the Zealous Ones) and performed commedia dell’arte from 1569 to 1604. They adopted for a coat of arms, the two-faced Roman god Janus; symbolising both the comings and goings of this travelling troupe and the dual nature of the actor, who impersonates another.

The Gelosi performed in Northern Italy and France, where they received protection and patronage from the King of France. Performances took place inside court theatres or halls and also at some fixed theatres, such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Their usual cast was with ten performers: “two vecchi (old men), four innamorati (two male and female lovers), two Zanni, a captain and a servetta (serving maid)”.

The first published scenarios, of commedia dell’arte, were made at around the start of the 17th century, essentially to legitimise the form and ensure its legacy.

Female roles played by women, were documented as early as the 1560s; making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity. However, by the following decade the Italian church unsuccessfully attempted to ban actresses from performing; likening them to “courtesans”, for infusing young men with carnal desires! However, by the end of the 16th century, actresses were standard on the Italian stage.

By the early 1600s, the comedies were moving from mostly improvised street performances; to specified and clearly delineated acts and characters.

Three books were written during the 17th century, made firm recommendations concerning performing practice: Cecchini’s “Fruti della moderne commedia “(1628), Niccolò Barbieri’s “La supplica” (1634) and Perrucci’s “Dell’arte rapresentativa” (1699)”. However, critics such as Katritzky argued that as a result, commedia’s move to formulaic and stylized acting; had greatly reduced the purity of the improvisational genesis a century earlier.

Commedia’s move into Europe and its evolving style. Commedia was equally if not more popular in France, where it continued its popularity throughout the 17th century and it was in France that commedia developed its established repertoire.

In France, during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), the “Comédie-Italienne” created its own repertoire introducing new masks and further delineated character roles; whilst removing some of the Italian precursors, such as Pantalone. French playwrights, particularly Molière, created an indigenous style of commedia; by adding his own forms of theatrical expression, such as the “tirade”.

Commedia dell’arte moved outside the city limits to the “théâtre de la foire” (fair theatres) in the early 17th century; as it evolved toward more of a pantomime style.

In 1797, with Republic’s fall and the dispatch of Italian comedians from France, the theatrical form further transmogrified in the 18th century; as genres such as “comédie larmoyante gained in attraction in France, particularly through the plays of Marivaux. He softened the commedia considerably, by bringing in “true emotion” to the stage. The character Harlequin, achieved more prominence during this period.

(Note. Comédie larmoyante” (French: tearful comedy) was a genre of French drama of the 18th century. In this type of sentimental comedy, the impending tragedy was resolved at the end, amid reconciliations and floods of tears. Plays of this genre that ended unhappily; nevertheless allowed the audience to see that a “moral triumph”, had been earned for the suffering heroes and heroines.

It also evolved into various configurations across Europe, with and each country modifying the form to its own cultural tastes. For example pantomime, which flourished in the 18th century, owes its genesis to the character types of the commedia, particularly Harlequin. The Punch and Judy puppet shows, popular to this day in England, owe their basis to the Pulcinella mask that emerged in Neapolitan versions of the form. In Italy, commedia masks and plots found their way into the “opera buffa” and the plots of Rossini, Verdi, and Puccini.

During the Napoleonic occupation of Italy, reformers and critics of French Imperial rule (such as Casnova) used the Carnival masks to hide their identities; while fuelling political agendas, challenging social rule and hurling blatant insults and criticisms at the regime.

Fall of the Republic. Finally in 1797, in order to destroy the impromptu style of Carnival as a partisan platform; Napoleon outlawed the commedia dell’arte. It was not reborn in Venice, until 1979.

Commedia dell’arte – Guide to the main characters and their dress

There are four main commedia dell’arte character types, that are essential to the history and development of theatre. Each main actor has a distinct costume, that helps the audience relate to and understand; who the character is. There may also be, dancers and musicians who support the main players.

From the iconic “Zanni” to the romantic “Innamorati”; these characters captured the imagination of audiences for centuries and continue to be relevant in modern theatre and media. It’s important to note, that each character type has subtypes and variations and that they are often adapted to suit the specific needs of a production. Additionally, the masks worn by some of the characters, are an integral part of their personas and are often seen as an extension of the character.

To put across their characters, actors used both exaggerated forms of physical and *emotional gesturing and mimicry (body language) to support the spoken word. (* The seven primary emotions they portray are: joy, grief, fear, anger, surprise, love, anger.) Gobbledygook (Giberish / Grammalot), a nonsense language, was often used; by which the audience were able to follow the plot, without understanding what was actually spoken. This was useful when regional dialects were common, or when performing abroad.

From wealthy figures to servants they include:

The Vecchi: are wealthy old men, who are often portrayed as being miserly and stingy. They are typically portrayed as being greedy and possessive of their money, property and women. The most famous Vecchi characters include:

Magnifico: the most powerful character, that wears an eagle mask and so looks down on everything. A fore-runner to the two other vecchi below.
Pantalone: is a wealthy and lustful old man, a miserly merchant, a master of cunning and often the target of the other characters’ scheming. He has one of the most iconic costumes of commedia dell’arte; typically, wearing a tight-fitting jacket with a matching pair of trousers. These were usually paired these with a big black coat called a “zimarra” and he had a mask and a long hooked nose.
Il Dottore: the “Doctor is a pompous, verbose and pretentious character who is known for his long-winded speeches. He flaunts his academic credentials, even though his knowledge is often questionable. His costume, was a play on the academic dress of the Bolognese scholars and he is almost always clothed entirely in black. He wore a long black gown or jacket, that went below the knees. Over this, he would have a long black robe that went down to his heels and he would have on, black shoes, stockings and breeches. Later In 1653, his costume was changed by Augustin Lolli, who was a very popular Il Dottore actor. He added an enormous black hat, changed the robe to a jacket cut similarly to Louis XIV and added a flat ruff to the neck.

The Innamorati: are young, upper-class lovers who are typically portrayed as being romantic, passionate, idealistic and often naive; but not masked. (Think Romeo and Juliet). They are often the focus of the plot and are used as a foil for the other characters. The lovers would wear what was considered to be the fashion for the upper class of the time period; not masked and often fully made-up.The most famous Innamorati characters include:

Flavio. A young and handsome lover, who is typically paired with Isabella.
Isabella. A beautiful and intelligent lover, who is often pursued by other characters.

Il Capitano: is a self-styled captain who is typically portrayed as arrogant and boastful. Typically, Spanish or a mercenary soldier; he often boasts of his military prowess and is frequently challenged to prove it. His uniform is a satire on military wear of the time and would therefore change depending on where and the period the Capitano character is from. The most famous Il Capitano character is “Scaramuccia”, or Scaramouche. His female counterpart, is known as “La Signora.”

The Zanni: are the most iconic and recognisable of the commedia dell’arte characters. There were essentially two classes – those that rose to supervisory positions or primary servants (Brighella and Colombina) and the basic servants, (Arlecchino, Scalpino, Pulcinella), low-level servants or clowns; who are typically portrayed as lazy, mischievous and always hungry. They speak in dialects and their costumes usually feature patches and ragged clothes. Female servants, usually wore less stylized costumes than the men.

The most famous Zanni characters include:

Brighella: a cunning, arrogant, quick-witted and resourceful character and also a womaniser; who often serves as a henchman to other characters. (Brigare is Italian for quarrel, trouble, intrigue). He wears a green mask and a colorful costume. His role often involves scheming, trickery and clever wordplay.
Colombina: a cunning and playful female character, who wears a simple dress and a half-mask. Her character of a simple servant, became more developed over time and her dress became more sophisticated. Colombina, is what the Innamorata were not: free and not a slave of love bonds, clever but vane, a gossip and always prone to intrigue at somebody else’s expense. Often a counter-point to other characters, such as Arlecchino. A sort of Harlequin in female clothes (or Arlecchinetta).
Arlecchino (or Harlequin) known for his diamond-patterned costume: he is mischievous, uses “slapstick” humour, acrobatic, amoral and in love with Colombina, The character originally wore a tight-fitting long jacket with matching trousers, that both had numerous odd shaped patches, usually green, yellow, red, and brown. Usually, there was a bat and a wallet, that would hang from his belt. His hat, which was a soft cap, was modelled after Charles IX or after Henri II and almost always had a tail of a rabbit, hare, or a fox with an occasional tuft of feathers. During the 17th century, the patches turned into blue, red, and green triangles arranged in a symmetrical pattern. The 18th century, is when the iconic Arlecchino look, of diamond shaped lozenges took shape. The jacket became shorter and his hat changed from a soft cap to a double pointed hat.
Scapino: a quick-witted and cunning servant who is always looking for a way to make a quick buck. His earlier costume was predominantly white, complete with a cloak and a sword hanging from his belt. He often wore a hat, that was torn and adorned with feathers. Not typically masked, his facial features were often exaggerated, emphasizing a hooked nose and a pointed beard.
Pulcinella: a hunchbacked character, who is clumsy and loves to eat. He wore a white loose-fitting costume, black leather mask and had iconic long curved nose. Long associated with Neapolitan culture, he devolved into various charactertypes elsewhere; most famously as the puppet character “Punch” (of the eponymous Punch and Judy shows) in England.

Conventional plot lines

Conventional plot lines often revolve around themes such as sex, jealousy, love, and old age. It has been suggested that many fundamental plot elements originate from Roman comedies, which were adaptations of now-lost Greek comedic works. Performers also drew inspiration from contemporary novellas, traditional sources, and the current events and local news of their time.

Not all scenarios were comedic; some were mixed forms, and there were even tragedies. For instance, Shakespeare’s “The Tempest” was inspired by a popular scenario from the Scala collection, his character Polonius in “Hamlet” resembles Pantalone, and his clowns pay tribute to the Zanni.

Actors relied on well-rehearsed jokes and stock physical gags, known as “lazzi” and “concetti,” as well as spontaneous improvised and interpolated episodes or routines called “burle” (Italian for jokes), often involving practical jokes.

Since the productions were improvised, the dialogue and action could be readily adapted to satirize local scandals, current events, or regional preferences, all while incorporating time-honored jokes and punchlines. Characters were distinguished by their costumes, masks, and props, such as a “slapstick,” a type of baton. These characters included the precursors to the modern clown, notably Harlequin (Arlecchino), who was especially known for commenting on current events in his performances.

The classic plot typically involves young lovers, the innamorati, who wish to marry but are thwarted by one or more elders, the vecchi, prompting them to seek help from one or more Zanni, the eccentric servants. The story usually concludes with the joyful union of the innamorati and forgiveness for any transgressions.

Although largely unscripted, the performances often relied on scenarios that provided a semblance of a plot to the improvisational format. The “Flaminio Scala” scenarios, published in the early 17th century, are among the most renowned examples.

Influence in visual art

The iconography of the commedia dell’arte represents an entire field of study.

In the early period, representative works by painters at Fontainebleau were notable for their erotic depictions of the thinly veiled innamorata, or the bare-breasted courtesan/actress. (Note. Fontainebleau, located 55 kilometers (34 miles) southeast of the center of Paris, in the commune of Fontainebleau; is one of the largest French royal châteaux. It served as a hunting lodge and summer residence for many of the French monarchs, beginning with Louis VII. Francis I, Henry II, Louis-Philippe, Napoleon Bonaparte and Napoleon III. Though the monarchs only resided there for a few months of the year, they gradually transformed it into a genuine palace; filled with art and decoration. It became a national museum in 1927 and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981; for its unique architecture and historical importance.)
The Flemish influence is widely documented as commedia figures entered the world of the vanitas (vanity) – a still-life genre, depicting the dangers of lust, drinking, and the hedonistic lifestyle. (Note. A group of painters in Leiden began to produce vanitas paintings in the beginning of the 16th century and they continued into the 17th century. Vanitas art is an allegorical art, representing a higher ideal or containing hidden meanings. Vanitas are very formulaic and they use literary and traditional symbols to convey mortality. Vanitas often have a message that is rooted in religion or the Christian Bible. later, in the 17th century the vanitas genre was popular among Dutch painters. The paintings often have symbolic imagery which attempts to convey the message that all people die, encouraging the viewer to think about the futility of our earthly pursuits. The well known Spanish vanitas refer to Spain’s rulers and the politics of Spain. It was popular to include skulls in vanitas paintings, as a symbol of the ephemeral nature of life.)

18th century Italian commedia players

Castagno, describes the Flemish “pittore vago” (wandering painters), who assimilated themselves within Italian workshops and even assumed Italian surnames. For example, one of the most influential painters, Lodewyk Toeput, became Ludovico Pozzoserrato and was a celebrated painter in the Veneto region of Italy. They can be attributed with establishing commedia dell’arte, as a genre of painting that would persist for centuries. While the iconography gives evidence of the performance style, it is important to note that many of the images and engravings were not depictions from real life, but studio concoctions. The Callot etchings of the Balli di Sfessania (1611) are most widely considered capricci, rather than actual depictions of a commedia dance form, or typical masks. (Note. Jacques Callot c. 1592 – 1635), was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine (an independent state on the north-eastern border of France, southwestern border of Germany and overlapping the southern Netherlands). He is an important person in the development of the old master print. He made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring clowns, soldiers, drunkards, Romani beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background.)

In the 18th century, Watteau’s painting of commedia figures intermingling with the aristocracy; were often set in sumptuous garden, or pastoral settings and were representative of that genre.
Pablo Picasso’s 1921 painting “Three Musicians”, is a colorful representation of commedia-inspired characters. Picasso also designed the original costumes for Stravinsky’s Pulcinella (1920), a ballet depicting commedia characters and situations.
Commedia iconography is also evident in porcelain figurine of high value, often sold at auctions.

Influence in performance art

Commedia, influenced Molière’s comedy (1622 baptised – 1673) and subsequently “ballet d’action”, thus lending a fresh range of expression and choreographic means. An example of a commedia dell’arte character in literature, is the Pied Piper of Hamelin, who is dressed as Harlequin. (Note.The Pied Piper of Hamelin (German: der Rattenfänger von Hameln, also known as the Pan Piper or the Rat-Catcher of Hamelin); is the title character of a legend from the town of Hamelin (Hameln), Lower Saxony, Germany. The legend dates back to the Middle Ages and the earliest references describe a piper, dressed in multicoloured (“pied”) clothing, who was a rat catcher hired by the town to lure rats away with his magic pipe. When the citizens refuse to pay for this service as promised, he retaliates by using his instrument’s magical power on their children; leading them away as he had the rats.)
Music and dance were central to commedia dell’arte performance and most performances had both instrumental and vocal music in them. Brighella was often depicted with a guitar and many images of the commedia; feature singing innamorati or dancing figures. In fact, it was considered part of the innamorati function, to be able to sing and have the popular repertoire under their belt. Indeed, accounts of the early commedia, as far back as Calmo in the 1570s and the “buffoni” of Venice; noted the ability of certain comedy characters to sing “madrigals precisely and beautifully. The dancers may have been in addition to the general cast of characters.
The works of a number of playwrights have featured characters influenced by the commedia dell’arte and sometimes directly drawn from it. Prominent examples include “The Tempest” by William Shakespeare, “Les Fourberies de Scapin” by Molière, “The Servant of Two Masters” (1743) by Carlo Goldoni, the Figaro plays of Pierre Beaumarchais and especially “The Love for Three Oranges“, “Turandot” and other fiabe, by Carlo Gozzi. Influences appear in the lodgers in Steven Berkoff’s adaptation of Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis“.
Through their association with spoken theatre and playwrights, commedia figures have provided opera with many of its stock characters. Mozart’s “Don Giovanni“, sets a puppet show story and comic servants like Leporello and Figaro have commedia precedents. Soubrette characters like Susanna in “Le nozze di Figaro“, Zerlina in “Don Giovanni” and Despina in “Così fan tutte“; recall Columbina and related characters. The comic operas of Gaetano Donizetti, such as “L’elisir d’amore“; draw readily upon commedia stock types. Leoncavallo’s tragic melodrama “Pagliacci” depicts a commedia dell’arte company, in which the performers find their life situations; reflecting events they depict on stage. Commedia characters also figure in Richard Strauss’s opera “Ariadne auf Naxos“.
The piano piece “Carnaval” by Robert Schumann, was conceived as a kind of masked ball that combined characters from commedia dell’arte with real world characters, such as Chopin, Paganini, and Clara Schumann, as well as characters from the composer’s inner world. Movements of the piece reflect the names of many characters of the commedia, including Pierrot, Harlequin, Pantalon, and Columbine.
Stock characters and situations also appear in ballet. Igor Stravinsky’s “Petrushka” and “Pulcinella”, allude directly to the tradition.
Commedia dell’arte is performed seasonally in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the Peacock Stage of Tivoli Gardens and at Dyrehavsbakken, north of Copenhagen; which has regular performances. Bakken has daily performances for children by Pierrot and a puppet version of Pulcinella, resembling Punch and Judy.
Finally, comedy’s roots are clearly seen on classic television comedy series, such as: Rowan Atkinson in his beloved character Mr. Bean, Basil and Miguel in Faulty Towers and many of the cast of The Simpsons. The characters created and portrayed by English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen (most famously Ali G, Borat, and Bruno), have their potential origins in commedia; as Baron Cohen was trained by French master clown Philippe Gaulier, whose other students have gone on to become teachers and performers of commedia.

Links (internal–external)

History of Venetian Masks

History and Development of Venetian Opera

The World of Commedia dell’Arte-You Tube Video

This great little film, is an introduction to the world of Commedia dell’Arte. Learn about all of the stock characters in Commedia, the masked and the unmasked, their status, their physical shapes and their characters. This film was made from a two day workshop with young actors held at the National Theatre with Didi Hopkins from Commediaworks. The film was made by Deborah May.

Commedia dell’arte Commedia dell’arte Commedia dell’arte Commedia dell’arte

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